![[personal profile]](https://www.dreamwidth.org/img/silk/identity/user.png){kind=small}
Thank Dan, too. He did at least half the work.
Terms
Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV) - Thematic catalogue of Bach’s works.
Concerto Grosso- A concerto for a small group of soloists, the concertino, and bigger orchestra, the ripieno. The most common solo group, used in the archetypal concerti grossi of Corelli’s op.6, is two violins and cello. Bach preferred a more varied selection of instruments. The standard form for Vivaldi's earlier concerti grossi was three movements: fast, slow, fast. In his later style a slow fourth movement was added at the beginning.
da Capo aria- an ABA aria form which is the primary vehicle of expression and reaction in opera seria.
French overture- An overture in two parts whose origin is in the music played to process King Louis XIV into the opera theater. The first part has double-dotted rhythms and a stately processional feel. The second is quick and lively with imitative sections. This piece can be associated with Lully’s dominance in French dramatic music.
English Oratorio- Genre of unstaged oratorio for performance in theaters, dominated by Handel. Characteristic qualities are secco recitative (soloist is accompanied only by continuo instruments which do not have their own interjections) and use of the da capo aria. Both of the aforementioned qualities are overlaps with opera seria conventions. In contrast to opera seria, the chorus had a reversal of its earlier exclusion from opera due to economic considerations; it became an element of central importance, featured even in arias and duets that were not solely chorus music.
Fortspinnungstypus- Ritornello form in three parts: Vordersatz (antecedent phrase), Fortspinnung (development of Vordersatz), and Epilog (recapitulation).
Galant- Term coined to depict music that is considered free or homophonic-style opposed to the strict, learned, or contrapuntal style. Traits include light texture, periodic phrasing with frequent candences, liberally ornamented melody,
simple harmony, and free treatment of dissonance. Forerunner of the classical period and aesthetic simplicity. Heinichen wrote in the galant style.
German Cantata- Combination of biblical text, chorales, recits. and arias. This was the centerpiece of the Lutheran church service. One of the most prolific composers of this music was Bach.
Stylus phantasticus- German instrumental genre with fantastic and imaginative qualities, including programmatic elements. Depicts extramusical things, concrete or abstract. Heinrich Biber is an example of this style, with the Rosenkranz Sonaten.
Opera Seria- Realistic drama; the preceding era’s mythology and supernatural themes were refused in favor of psychological drama. No comedic elements. Began as a literary movement and produced the first historical heroic dramas-- subject matter was taken from historical accounts. The da Capo Aria functioned as the main expressive vehicle. Pietro Metastasio was the master of librettos for this genre.
Prélude non mesuré- Unmeasured preludes, originally to test lutes before playing, moved up through harpsichords and were written down with as inexact notation as possible to retain improvisatory nature.
Ritornello form- Alternates refrains for tutti with episodes for soloist or soloists.
Rosenkranz Sonaten- Composed by Biber, these are the rosary sonatas written for and about the fifteen mysteries of the rosary. These pieces also require the use of Scordatura tuning (tuning the strings differently than the normal way),
and are considered programmatic.
Sonata da Chiesa- Church sonata- a work for instrumental ensembles, prevalent from the 1650’s-1770’s. Has 1-7 sections or movements, contrasting in meter, tempo, and texture, usually based on a dance (not admitted; it's church) and is written for one or more melody instruments. Corelli standardized this sonata form.
Tombeau- A musical tribute to a (usually dead) composer or musician. Sometimes programmatic. Charpentier composed some.
Accademia dell’Arcadia- Founded in Rome in 1690 for the elimination of "bad taste," aimed to bring back a classical ideal in literature, including libretti. In favor of classical tragedy, high-toned entertainment. Took French opera as an example with its historical drama.
Memoranda- Treatise on Anthropology and musicology of the new world written by Matolina, one of the first missionaries in the Valley of Mexico. Proto-enthnographic account of Mexican sung ritual. He also write la Historia de los Indios de la Nueva Espana (1541), accounts the progress of evangelism after conquest.
People
Carlo Goldoni- librettist and playwright. Wrote for Venetian theaters, 1734-62; thereafter for the Comèdie italienne in Paris. Helped create the genre dramma giocoso- literally a jocular but more accurately a pleasant or cheerful (nontragic, yet not farcical) drama. Goldoni was opposed to the conventions of opera seria.
Abbé Pierre Perrin- Poet and librettist. In 1609 received a privilege to establish academies for the development of a French national opera. With Cambert, wrote Pomone 1671 for the inaugural production. Surrendered his privilege to Lully in 1672. What is really important about him is he wrote texts that were used in French sacred music under Louis XIV. Cantica pro capella Regis is a motet that he wrote using this new sacred text.
Johann David Heinichen- Theorist and composer. Student and assistant of Kuhnau. opera director in Leipzig, 1709; journeyed to Italy in 1710, composing operas in Venice. Kapellmeister in Dresden from 1717. Composed a great variety of sacred
and secular music and instrumental works; best known for his treatise Der Generalbass in der Composition, 1728, an account of continuo practice and of the technical and aesthetic aspects of composition. Often composed in the Galant style.
Charles Jennens- Librettist for Saul and the Messiah, which was his idea. Rich Leicestershire dilettante and supporter of the composer who fashioned a coherent and dramatic plot out of the somewhat confused biblical history contained in the first book of Samuel. Jennens added the character of Merab, which he pinched from Abraham Cowley's epic poem about the life of David and coöperated on Händel's revisions but not without some reservations. He wrote to his relative Lord Guernsey: "Mr Händel's head is more full of Maggots than ever ...", referring to the new instrumental effects Händel had inserted, the addition of an expensive organ and the final "Hallelujah" chorus, and he continues: "I could tell you more of his Maggots, but it grows late and I must defer the rest until I write next, by which time, I doubt not, more new ones will breed in his brain."
Pietro Metastasio- Librettist wrote 27 3 act heroic operas. There are over 800 settings of his librettos, by composers such as Handel, Gluck, Mozart, Hasse, and Porpora, making him the principal exponent of opera seria.
Erdmann Neumeister (1671-1756)- Librettist for Nun komm der heiden Heiland. His devotional poetry established a new trend in sacred music.
Marc-Antoine Charpentier- French composer who studied in Rome with Carissimi. On returning to France he was opposed by his Paris contemporary Lully, but nevertheless won considerable esteem. A prolific composer, he was more appreciated for his church music than his secular compositions. Favoured by the Dauphin and the Jesuits who appointed him music master at their St. Louis church and later at the Sainte-Chappelle.
Pier Francesco Tosi- Theorist, composer and castrato singer. From 1693 he sang and taught singing in London; 1705-11 composed at the Viennese court; Later at Dresden, Bologna, and London. His treatise on singing, Opinion de’ cantori antichi e moderni 1723 contains valuable information on performance practice.
Listening
Prelude in F for Harpsichord (c. 1660)- Louis Couperin- unmeasured prelude
Armide (1686) overture and Act II, sc. 5- Jean Baptiste Lully- Tragédie en musique
The first excerpt is an example of a French overture in two parts. The first part is homophonic, slow and majextic, marked by persistent dotted rhythms, and by figures rushing towards the downbeats. Also a demonstration of the French convention of double dotting, reading a single dot as being double dotted. The second section is faster and in a compound triple meter, and resembles a fugue. The entire piece derives its original dance pedigree from the allemande. The recit is more melodious than its Italian counterpart.
Op. 3 (1689)- Arcangelo Corelli- trio sonata
This church sonata (sonata da chiesa) has the typical slow-fast sucession of movements, and has the classical trio sonata instrumentation: 2 violins, a bass or organ. The first movement is aligned with the allemande, the third with the sarabande and the fourth with the gigue. The third movement is quite fugal and the second part of this movement is an inversion of the first half.
Dido and Aeneas (1689)- Henry Purcell- English opera
Purcell set this lament in the same way the Italians would have, over a ground bass. Use of the descending scale is used to present Dido dying during this lament.
Concerto Grosso in G minor, Op. 3 (1711)- Antonio Vivaldi
Vivaldi applied the structure of alternation of ritornellos with solo episodes, loosely to the Concerto grosso, in which the soloist were a goup of players known as the concertino or small ensemble, as distinguished from the concerto grosso, or large ensemble. Vivaldi’s allegro structures show an infinity of invention.
Durch Adams Fall, BWV 637 (1716-1717)- J. S. Bach- chorale prelude
The tune of this organ piece is in bar form, consisting of a repeated section and a closing section. Through a series of jagged dissonant leaps in the pedals depicts the idea of Adam’s fall, departing from a consonant chord and falling into a dissonant one
Wachet auf, BWV 140 (1731)- J.S. Bach- chorale based cantata or chorale cantata
The opening chorus is the weightiest movements and in modeled on the ritornello structure of the instrumental concerto. The structure is very similar to many Vivaldi concertos, the ritornello is divisible into four-bar phrases on several distinct motives.
The aria duet , Mein freund ist mein, is a full blown da capo form. It is also very conventional in that the ritornello introduces the melody that the voices then elaborate..
Saul (1739)- G.F. Handel- oratorio
One of Handel’s first English Oratorios. Charles Jennens dramatized parts of the first and second books of Samuel in this oratorio. The first part demonstrates the use of Recit. Accompagnato, when Saul expresses his desire to kill David. The violins and violas simulate bellicose trumpet fanfares between the lines of rhymed poetry. In the Continuo recit. Handel uses alien chords to show Saul’s intensifying anger. The chorus is a sucession of three fugues.
Mass in b minor, BWV 232 (late 1740’s)- J.S. Bach
Assembled from mostly previously composed music. The bass solo with two obi d’amore, shows traces of the popular gallant style- repeated phrases, parallel thirds, and slow harmonic rhythm. Bach also took great care to subordinate the instrumental parts to the voice.
Parts of the Confiteor are in the stile antico, marked by the alla breve time signature and fugal procedures of that style. Bach did add a modern touch: a quasi ostinato bass.
Orfeo ed Euridice (1762)- Chistoph Willibald Gluck- reform opera
Gluck aimed “to continue music to its true function of serving the poetry by expressing feelings and the situations of the story. In the underworld chorus scene, there are two orchestras, one for the ballet and chorus of Furies, and another of harps and stings to accompany Orfeo’s pleading with lyre-like sounds. This is an example of Gluck using the full capacities of the new Symphony Orchestra, calculated key relationships, and unprepared diminished- and dominant-seventh chords in different inversions. Gluck prided himself on the simplicity of his melody, sparseness of embellishment, and economy of melodic and text repetition, all of which are signs of early classical composition.
Sample Essay Topics
Musical style in Lully's tragedie en musique
Glorification of Louis XIV, establishment of French identity, structured in prologue and 5 acts, origin of French overture and double-dotting, contained much instrumental music for dance, mostly widely homophonic, recit is more melodic and less measured than Italian, all arias in this style are bar form AABA. Didn't use historical figures; too fantastic for realism. Stuck with legends, heavenly occurrences, sometimes the Bible; no history. Extensive supernatural elements; essential, not merely valuable. Violent events unfolded onstage, different from theater, which was offstage. Prevailingly poetic and elegaic. Goal "to hold the spirit, the eyes and the ears in equal enchantment." Dramatic scenes in recitative. Other scenes fetes, big numbers also forwarding the plot.
Baroque-era musical notation and improvisation in performance
Performance depends heavily on convention; notation may represent only a framework of performance. Two examples not performed as written are unmeasured prelude and recitative. Inexact rhythmic notation prevalent. In French music two types: overdotting and inequality (swinging, notes inegales). A third type in the period was rhythmic alignment of dotted notes and triplets (all vertically assimilated). Melodic shorthand notation in unmeasured preludes include slurs over two notes for arpeggios. Sustained notes while other parts are moving might not be indicated, but barlines and oblique lines indicate harmonic end. Originally, recitative was not performed rhythmically, but departed from notation to better express text and meaning. Bass line of recitative written in common time with long note values, but not necessarily performed that way; notes might be arpeggiated, anticipated to help the singer, ornamented, the bass doubled. Cadences had their own convetions; in opera, they were often aligned with the last two notes of the singer's phrase, even when not notated thus.
Opera seria convention and musical dramaturgy
Ancient fables better than history. Poets and librettists aimed to instruct, so quality of libretto was literature. Leading soprano/tenor/castrato 5 arias each, required performers to be either pathetic, virtuosic, speechlike, mixed character, or brilliant; no more than 7 characters in an opera, principals could not have consecutive similar arias, secondaries provied contrast, exit aria conventions (by 1710) required leaving the stage for drama and realism after pouring out emotion, 6 or 7 scene changes. Only act II had all cast onstage, ending always happy. Roles written specifically for singers, so they had powers. Worst singer always sang the sorbet aria (during loud serving of sorbet); people didn't really pay attention. Metastasio followed conventions and found success with them.
Terms
Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV) - Thematic catalogue of Bach’s works.
Concerto Grosso- A concerto for a small group of soloists, the concertino, and bigger orchestra, the ripieno. The most common solo group, used in the archetypal concerti grossi of Corelli’s op.6, is two violins and cello. Bach preferred a more varied selection of instruments. The standard form for Vivaldi's earlier concerti grossi was three movements: fast, slow, fast. In his later style a slow fourth movement was added at the beginning.
da Capo aria- an ABA aria form which is the primary vehicle of expression and reaction in opera seria.
French overture- An overture in two parts whose origin is in the music played to process King Louis XIV into the opera theater. The first part has double-dotted rhythms and a stately processional feel. The second is quick and lively with imitative sections. This piece can be associated with Lully’s dominance in French dramatic music.
English Oratorio- Genre of unstaged oratorio for performance in theaters, dominated by Handel. Characteristic qualities are secco recitative (soloist is accompanied only by continuo instruments which do not have their own interjections) and use of the da capo aria. Both of the aforementioned qualities are overlaps with opera seria conventions. In contrast to opera seria, the chorus had a reversal of its earlier exclusion from opera due to economic considerations; it became an element of central importance, featured even in arias and duets that were not solely chorus music.
Fortspinnungstypus- Ritornello form in three parts: Vordersatz (antecedent phrase), Fortspinnung (development of Vordersatz), and Epilog (recapitulation).
Galant- Term coined to depict music that is considered free or homophonic-style opposed to the strict, learned, or contrapuntal style. Traits include light texture, periodic phrasing with frequent candences, liberally ornamented melody,
simple harmony, and free treatment of dissonance. Forerunner of the classical period and aesthetic simplicity. Heinichen wrote in the galant style.
German Cantata- Combination of biblical text, chorales, recits. and arias. This was the centerpiece of the Lutheran church service. One of the most prolific composers of this music was Bach.
Stylus phantasticus- German instrumental genre with fantastic and imaginative qualities, including programmatic elements. Depicts extramusical things, concrete or abstract. Heinrich Biber is an example of this style, with the Rosenkranz Sonaten.
Opera Seria- Realistic drama; the preceding era’s mythology and supernatural themes were refused in favor of psychological drama. No comedic elements. Began as a literary movement and produced the first historical heroic dramas-- subject matter was taken from historical accounts. The da Capo Aria functioned as the main expressive vehicle. Pietro Metastasio was the master of librettos for this genre.
Prélude non mesuré- Unmeasured preludes, originally to test lutes before playing, moved up through harpsichords and were written down with as inexact notation as possible to retain improvisatory nature.
Ritornello form- Alternates refrains for tutti with episodes for soloist or soloists.
Rosenkranz Sonaten- Composed by Biber, these are the rosary sonatas written for and about the fifteen mysteries of the rosary. These pieces also require the use of Scordatura tuning (tuning the strings differently than the normal way),
and are considered programmatic.
Sonata da Chiesa- Church sonata- a work for instrumental ensembles, prevalent from the 1650’s-1770’s. Has 1-7 sections or movements, contrasting in meter, tempo, and texture, usually based on a dance (not admitted; it's church) and is written for one or more melody instruments. Corelli standardized this sonata form.
Tombeau- A musical tribute to a (usually dead) composer or musician. Sometimes programmatic. Charpentier composed some.
Accademia dell’Arcadia- Founded in Rome in 1690 for the elimination of "bad taste," aimed to bring back a classical ideal in literature, including libretti. In favor of classical tragedy, high-toned entertainment. Took French opera as an example with its historical drama.
Memoranda- Treatise on Anthropology and musicology of the new world written by Matolina, one of the first missionaries in the Valley of Mexico. Proto-enthnographic account of Mexican sung ritual. He also write la Historia de los Indios de la Nueva Espana (1541), accounts the progress of evangelism after conquest.
People
Carlo Goldoni- librettist and playwright. Wrote for Venetian theaters, 1734-62; thereafter for the Comèdie italienne in Paris. Helped create the genre dramma giocoso- literally a jocular but more accurately a pleasant or cheerful (nontragic, yet not farcical) drama. Goldoni was opposed to the conventions of opera seria.
Abbé Pierre Perrin- Poet and librettist. In 1609 received a privilege to establish academies for the development of a French national opera. With Cambert, wrote Pomone 1671 for the inaugural production. Surrendered his privilege to Lully in 1672. What is really important about him is he wrote texts that were used in French sacred music under Louis XIV. Cantica pro capella Regis is a motet that he wrote using this new sacred text.
Johann David Heinichen- Theorist and composer. Student and assistant of Kuhnau. opera director in Leipzig, 1709; journeyed to Italy in 1710, composing operas in Venice. Kapellmeister in Dresden from 1717. Composed a great variety of sacred
and secular music and instrumental works; best known for his treatise Der Generalbass in der Composition, 1728, an account of continuo practice and of the technical and aesthetic aspects of composition. Often composed in the Galant style.
Charles Jennens- Librettist for Saul and the Messiah, which was his idea. Rich Leicestershire dilettante and supporter of the composer who fashioned a coherent and dramatic plot out of the somewhat confused biblical history contained in the first book of Samuel. Jennens added the character of Merab, which he pinched from Abraham Cowley's epic poem about the life of David and coöperated on Händel's revisions but not without some reservations. He wrote to his relative Lord Guernsey: "Mr Händel's head is more full of Maggots than ever ...", referring to the new instrumental effects Händel had inserted, the addition of an expensive organ and the final "Hallelujah" chorus, and he continues: "I could tell you more of his Maggots, but it grows late and I must defer the rest until I write next, by which time, I doubt not, more new ones will breed in his brain."
Pietro Metastasio- Librettist wrote 27 3 act heroic operas. There are over 800 settings of his librettos, by composers such as Handel, Gluck, Mozart, Hasse, and Porpora, making him the principal exponent of opera seria.
Erdmann Neumeister (1671-1756)- Librettist for Nun komm der heiden Heiland. His devotional poetry established a new trend in sacred music.
Marc-Antoine Charpentier- French composer who studied in Rome with Carissimi. On returning to France he was opposed by his Paris contemporary Lully, but nevertheless won considerable esteem. A prolific composer, he was more appreciated for his church music than his secular compositions. Favoured by the Dauphin and the Jesuits who appointed him music master at their St. Louis church and later at the Sainte-Chappelle.
Pier Francesco Tosi- Theorist, composer and castrato singer. From 1693 he sang and taught singing in London; 1705-11 composed at the Viennese court; Later at Dresden, Bologna, and London. His treatise on singing, Opinion de’ cantori antichi e moderni 1723 contains valuable information on performance practice.
Listening
Prelude in F for Harpsichord (c. 1660)- Louis Couperin- unmeasured prelude
Armide (1686) overture and Act II, sc. 5- Jean Baptiste Lully- Tragédie en musique
The first excerpt is an example of a French overture in two parts. The first part is homophonic, slow and majextic, marked by persistent dotted rhythms, and by figures rushing towards the downbeats. Also a demonstration of the French convention of double dotting, reading a single dot as being double dotted. The second section is faster and in a compound triple meter, and resembles a fugue. The entire piece derives its original dance pedigree from the allemande. The recit is more melodious than its Italian counterpart.
Op. 3 (1689)- Arcangelo Corelli- trio sonata
This church sonata (sonata da chiesa) has the typical slow-fast sucession of movements, and has the classical trio sonata instrumentation: 2 violins, a bass or organ. The first movement is aligned with the allemande, the third with the sarabande and the fourth with the gigue. The third movement is quite fugal and the second part of this movement is an inversion of the first half.
Dido and Aeneas (1689)- Henry Purcell- English opera
Purcell set this lament in the same way the Italians would have, over a ground bass. Use of the descending scale is used to present Dido dying during this lament.
Concerto Grosso in G minor, Op. 3 (1711)- Antonio Vivaldi
Vivaldi applied the structure of alternation of ritornellos with solo episodes, loosely to the Concerto grosso, in which the soloist were a goup of players known as the concertino or small ensemble, as distinguished from the concerto grosso, or large ensemble. Vivaldi’s allegro structures show an infinity of invention.
Durch Adams Fall, BWV 637 (1716-1717)- J. S. Bach- chorale prelude
The tune of this organ piece is in bar form, consisting of a repeated section and a closing section. Through a series of jagged dissonant leaps in the pedals depicts the idea of Adam’s fall, departing from a consonant chord and falling into a dissonant one
Wachet auf, BWV 140 (1731)- J.S. Bach- chorale based cantata or chorale cantata
The opening chorus is the weightiest movements and in modeled on the ritornello structure of the instrumental concerto. The structure is very similar to many Vivaldi concertos, the ritornello is divisible into four-bar phrases on several distinct motives.
The aria duet , Mein freund ist mein, is a full blown da capo form. It is also very conventional in that the ritornello introduces the melody that the voices then elaborate..
Saul (1739)- G.F. Handel- oratorio
One of Handel’s first English Oratorios. Charles Jennens dramatized parts of the first and second books of Samuel in this oratorio. The first part demonstrates the use of Recit. Accompagnato, when Saul expresses his desire to kill David. The violins and violas simulate bellicose trumpet fanfares between the lines of rhymed poetry. In the Continuo recit. Handel uses alien chords to show Saul’s intensifying anger. The chorus is a sucession of three fugues.
Mass in b minor, BWV 232 (late 1740’s)- J.S. Bach
Assembled from mostly previously composed music. The bass solo with two obi d’amore, shows traces of the popular gallant style- repeated phrases, parallel thirds, and slow harmonic rhythm. Bach also took great care to subordinate the instrumental parts to the voice.
Parts of the Confiteor are in the stile antico, marked by the alla breve time signature and fugal procedures of that style. Bach did add a modern touch: a quasi ostinato bass.
Orfeo ed Euridice (1762)- Chistoph Willibald Gluck- reform opera
Gluck aimed “to continue music to its true function of serving the poetry by expressing feelings and the situations of the story. In the underworld chorus scene, there are two orchestras, one for the ballet and chorus of Furies, and another of harps and stings to accompany Orfeo’s pleading with lyre-like sounds. This is an example of Gluck using the full capacities of the new Symphony Orchestra, calculated key relationships, and unprepared diminished- and dominant-seventh chords in different inversions. Gluck prided himself on the simplicity of his melody, sparseness of embellishment, and economy of melodic and text repetition, all of which are signs of early classical composition.
Sample Essay Topics
Musical style in Lully's tragedie en musique
Glorification of Louis XIV, establishment of French identity, structured in prologue and 5 acts, origin of French overture and double-dotting, contained much instrumental music for dance, mostly widely homophonic, recit is more melodic and less measured than Italian, all arias in this style are bar form AABA. Didn't use historical figures; too fantastic for realism. Stuck with legends, heavenly occurrences, sometimes the Bible; no history. Extensive supernatural elements; essential, not merely valuable. Violent events unfolded onstage, different from theater, which was offstage. Prevailingly poetic and elegaic. Goal "to hold the spirit, the eyes and the ears in equal enchantment." Dramatic scenes in recitative. Other scenes fetes, big numbers also forwarding the plot.
Baroque-era musical notation and improvisation in performance
Performance depends heavily on convention; notation may represent only a framework of performance. Two examples not performed as written are unmeasured prelude and recitative. Inexact rhythmic notation prevalent. In French music two types: overdotting and inequality (swinging, notes inegales). A third type in the period was rhythmic alignment of dotted notes and triplets (all vertically assimilated). Melodic shorthand notation in unmeasured preludes include slurs over two notes for arpeggios. Sustained notes while other parts are moving might not be indicated, but barlines and oblique lines indicate harmonic end. Originally, recitative was not performed rhythmically, but departed from notation to better express text and meaning. Bass line of recitative written in common time with long note values, but not necessarily performed that way; notes might be arpeggiated, anticipated to help the singer, ornamented, the bass doubled. Cadences had their own convetions; in opera, they were often aligned with the last two notes of the singer's phrase, even when not notated thus.
Opera seria convention and musical dramaturgy
Ancient fables better than history. Poets and librettists aimed to instruct, so quality of libretto was literature. Leading soprano/tenor/castrato 5 arias each, required performers to be either pathetic, virtuosic, speechlike, mixed character, or brilliant; no more than 7 characters in an opera, principals could not have consecutive similar arias, secondaries provied contrast, exit aria conventions (by 1710) required leaving the stage for drama and realism after pouring out emotion, 6 or 7 scene changes. Only act II had all cast onstage, ending always happy. Roles written specifically for singers, so they had powers. Worst singer always sang the sorbet aria (during loud serving of sorbet); people didn't really pay attention. Metastasio followed conventions and found success with them.